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Entered according to Act of Congfelt in the year 1873, by 
ALEXANDER LOOS, 
in the office of the librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



ANTIQUITY OF MATERIALISM 



18' 



MATERIALISM: 

ITS HISTORY, 



AND ITS 



INFLUENCE UPON SOCIETY. 



By DR. LOUIS BUECHNER. 



While a great many are wont to consider that phase 
of philosophy which is most generally known under the 
name of Materialism, as quite new f Materialism can 
in fact be traced to the very beginning of philosophical 
speculation, and characterizes the very principles of the 
most ancient philosophical systems. There is no lack 
of well known and far spread religious systems in 
antiquity which, impossible as this may at first appear, 
are built upon an entirely materialistic basis. Thus 
Buddhism, founded 600 B. C. by the son of an Indian 
king, still continues its existence, though in a part- 
ially degenerated condition, and its followers far out- 
number the believers in Christianity. This remarkable 
religious system is characterized by the entire absence 
of Gods, of religious rites and ceremonies, of prayers, of 



* MATERIALISM IN THE ANCIENT ASIATIC RELIGIONS. 

priests, in short of any of the customary apparatus of 
other religions, and is exclusively founded upon moral 
discipline and ethics. Buddha's philosophy is essen- 
tially materialistic, inasmuch as it assumes as the first 
cause of all things the celebrated Prakriti, that is to say 
original nature, one and indestructible, in which the two 
antagonistic forces of rest and activity have their being. 
The latter of these gives then the impulse for the origin 
of the world, and this origin itself is described as a con- 
tinually repeated destruction and metamorphosis of that 
which exists — a principle of speculation entirely material- 
istic. Nor is the immortality of the soul admitted by 
Buddhism ; since it finds the highest aim of man in the 
celebrated "Nirvana", that is, in his entering a state 
of non-existence. For by attaining to this " Nirvana" 
man is redeemed of the four principal evils with which 
he is afflicted: birth, old age, disease and death, while 
at the same time escaping the tortures of the so-called 
"regeneration", which, as is well known, plays so prom- 
inent a part in Indian religion. 

Not only in Buddhism, however, but in all the 
mythical traditions of the Indians we find, more or 
less, the fundamental idea of original matter, one 
and undivided, and animated by an original force, 
immanent in and inherent with it, or of an original chaos, 
in which creative force is gradually developed. Only at 
a later period this materialistic idea of creative force 
gave rise to the idea of a creator and preserver of the 
world, outside of matter. 

In a similar manner the two principal deities of the 
Zoroastrian or Persian religion, Ormuzd and Ahriman, 
of which the former represents the principle of light and 
purity, the latter the opposing evil principle, have like- 



TRACES Otf MATERIALISM IN EGYPTIAN RELIGION. 3 

wise sprung from chaos, that is to say, from original 
matter and original force as inherent with it. 

The principle of Materialism appears most plainly 
however in the oldest religious system of the Chinese — as 
traceable to Confucius — a nation which is well known 
from the most ancient times until the present day to 
have excelled in intelligence and good common sense. 
There we find two original causes of existence assigned, 
which represent the ideas of original force and matter. 
They also symbolize the ideas of heaven and earth, 
which penetrate each other and thus produce those five 
elements, from which spring all other things by gradual 
development. Man is the acme of these five elements, 
and in him for the first time conscious will and intellect 
are manifested, while the deity or heaven is eternally 
unconscious nature. But as man has sprung from nature, 
he can have no other being than nature, and as there is 
no force without matter, and no soul without body, the 
personal mind of man returns after death again into the 
universal original force, that is to say, there is no perso- 
nal immortality. In his system of ethics Confucius essen- 
tially agrees with the materialists of our present time, 
and the doctrine, so often wrongly claimed as specifically 
Christian: "Do unto others as you would have others 
do to you", is found almost in these very words in the 
moral code left many centuries before the origin of 
Christianity by the founder of Chinese religion. 

Even the most ancient among the civilized nations of 
antiquity, the Egyptians, seem to have built their reli- 
gion and philosophy originally upon materialistic founda- 
tions. At least Prof. Roth relates in his history oi 
occidental philosophy, that the idea of a creation of the 
world/ rom nothing, which as is well known has found 



4: MATERIALISTIC CHARACTER OF GRECIAN PHILOSOPHY. 

Its highest development in Judaism and Christianity, 
was in the eyes of the Egyptians a nonentity or an 
absurdity. He also tells us that they distinguished 
four fundamental beings, whose mutual union only had 
resulted in a first or original deity, namely, matter, 
mind, space and time, among which matter seems to 
have played the most prominent part. At least it also 
bears in its quality as original matter the name of "the 
great mother," and is described as infinite and invested 
with force. Inasmuch as it is conceived as a person and 
raised to the dignity of a deity, it is also called "JVeith," 
and bears on the celebrated "Neith pictures" at Sais 
the inscription : "I am everything that was, is and will 
be." From this original matter which existed from the 
beginning, everything else springs forth: the worlds, 
the gods, the earth, and so forth. 

If, as we have seen, these ancient ideas resemble 
the Materialism of our days so much that they seem almost 
identical with it, this is still more the case with regard 
to the philosophical systems of antiquity. Philosophical 
speculation appears for the first time in systematic form 
among that magnificent nation, the Greeks, among whom 
we meet during the great period preceding the time of 
Socrates, a long series of remarkable thinkers or phil- 
osophers, who are generally considered as marking the 
very beginning of philosophy in man's history. These 
are the renowned Grecian Cosmologists whose existence 
extends over nearly a century and a half, covering as it 
does the period from the beginning of the sixth century 
B. 0. until the time of Socrates, or 460 B. C. All these 
philosophers are monists or philosophers of unity, that 
is, they do not know that dualism which so strikingly 
characterizes subsequent phases of philosophical thought 



THALES, ANAXIMANDER, ANAXIMENES, PYTHAGORAS. 5 

by the contrast and antagonism which they establish be- 
tween world and God, mind and matter, body and 
soul. They all lay down theories of the origin of 
the world, but exclusively upon the ground of physico- 
material causes. They all assume a single original 
matter from which everything has sprung, and they 
all approach in their general views the principles 
of modern natural science so nearly as to excite 
our highest surprise. Finally they all were not 
only speculative philosophers, but naturalists, as far as 
this term is applicable to those times. 

The first of these philosophers was Tholes, who lived 
about 635 B. C. and is generally considered as the 
founder of all philosophy. The substance of his knowl- 
edge he had brought from Egypt. He explained the 
inundations of th Nile from natural causes, measured 
the pyramids by their shadows, and was able to predict 
to the astonished Ionians the exact time of a solar 
eclipse. He also knew the moon to derive her light 
from the sun, declared the shape of the earth to be that 
of a globe (which correct view was afterwards aban- 
doned) and expressed pretty correct opinions regard- 
ing the nature of stars. He considered water as the 
original matter from which all things have sprung. 

The path so successfully opened by Thales was now 
followed up by quite a number of his countrymen. First 
Anaximander (about 610 B. C.) who drew up the first 
maps of the earth as then known, and who is really to 
be considered as the first decided materialist, since he 
replaces the water to which Thales had given the prefer- 
ence, by the pure, unlimited and indestructible original 
matter, which according to him bears the force of motion 
and evolution in itself and calls forth all phenomena of 



6 XENOPHANES, HERACLITUS, EMPEDOCLES. 

the world by means of condensation and attenuation. 
He was followed by Anaximenes who rejected his pre- 
decessor's "original matter" as of too indefinite a nature 
and substituted for it the air; and afterwards by the 
school of Pythagoras, who died about 540 B. C. He 
maintains, no doubt in adaptation to Egyptian ideas, a 
quaternity of original mind, original matter, original 
space and original time, and declares the universe as eter- 
nal and infinite. When Pythagoras, who was also an ex- 
cellent mathematician, discovered the celebrated theorem 
which still bears his name, he expressed his joy by an 
hecatomb, that is to say by sacrificing in honor of the 
gods a hundred steers. " Since that time " wittily says 
our great German humorist, Boerne, when referring to 
this fact, "All oxen bellow as often as a new truth is 
discovered." 

Pythagoras was followed by the Eleatic school, 
so-called, which flourished about 400 B. C. Their 
celebrated tounder Xenophanes of Colophon, in Asia 
Minor, exposed the mythology of Iris countrymen to 
pitiless ridicule and was at the same time the first 
one who recognized the petrefactions found in the 
earth as what they really are — relics of formerly 
living beings. 

Xenophanes was succeeded by his pupil Heracli- 
tus, surnamed "the obscure one," who lived about 
500 B. C. and added to the elements of water, mat- 
ter and air, acknowledged up to that time, fire as a 
fourth one. " The universe, the same for all," says 
he, " has been made neither by one of the gods nor 
of men, but it has been, and is, and will be an 
eternally living fire, glowing and cooling in definite 
measures, a game that Jove is playing with himself." 



MATERIALISTIC PHILOSOPHY OF THE ATOMISTS. 7 

He laid so great stress upon the vanity of all earthly- 
things, that he- has thereby secured also the sur 
name of the " weeping " philosopher. 

After Heraclitus comes Empedocles, about 450 B. 
C, who is now generally considered as the origin- 
ator of Darwin's theory of evolution, because he first 
pronounced the fundamental idea underlying that 
theory, by designating all those beings which now ex- 
ist, as mere relics of infinitely numerous beginnings 
and as the result of a gradual evolution from the 
less to the more perfect. The world itself he de- 
clared as eternal and uncreated, adding to the three 
elements ef water, air and fire, the fourth element of 
earth. This then was the origin of the four elements of 
Aristotle, which indeed, no longer back than twenty or 
thirty years ago, were still taught in our schools as the 
basis of natural science, although Aristotle himself is 
entirely innocent of them. He only accepted them into 
his system of philosophy, adding to them as a fifth ele- 
ment the celebrated " Essentia quintet " or quintessence 
as the cause of the spiritual. 

Of greater importance, however, than all the pre- 
viously mentioned philosophers, are the celebrated 
Atomists of the period preceding Socrates, because 
their remarkable theory of atoms most nearly ap- 
proaches modern natural science, which is indeed 
likewise entirely built upon the atomic theory. Their 
founder is £eucippus, the first out-spoken teacher of 
atheism in the sense of a philosophical system. His 
pupil De?nocritus, however, became much more cel- 
ebrated and important. He was born 450 B. C. in 
one of the Ionian colonies. For the purpose of ex- 
plaining the origin of the world, he laid down a 



8 THE SOPHISTS, IDEALISTS AND EPICUREANS. 

complete theory of atoms, which differs from the 
modern atomic theory only in this, that Demo- 
critus ( as could not well be expected otherwise at 
his time ) imagines the atoms as far too great, by 
comparing them to the motes in a sunbeam, while 
we now know, that such a mote itself consists of in- 
numerable atoms or smallest particles which we con- 
sider as no further divisible. From these atoms and 
their mutual penetration and intermixture, Democritus 
derives every existing thing, both physical and intel- 
lectual, which likewise excludes the idea of a per- 
sonal immortality of the soul. Only virtue is neces- 
sary for happiness, and the greatest happiness which 
is attainable for man, consists in a quiet life free 
from care. The doctrine of teleology, which argues 
for the existence of a deity from the marks of design 
apparent in the universe, as implying an intelligent 
creator, is rejected by Democritus. For this reason 
his philosophy has been subject to the same objec- 
tions as modern materialism, as if it founded everything 
upon chance, while in fact according to his true meaning 
everything is subject to law and order. 

No doubt the doctrine of Democritus contains the 
most fully developed materialism of antiquity, and was 
recognized and acknowledged as such at that time, shar- 
ing in the same violent attacks with modern materialism, 
especially on the part of Aristotle, and drawing in later 
years all possible, though groundless, calumniations upon 
Democritus and his School. 

These were followed by the Sophists, so-called, who 
likewise, though to a less extent, inclined towards mate- 
rialism and atheism, and who in their turn were followed 
by /Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the celebrated repre- 



TRACES OF MATERIALISM IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 9 

sentatives of the idealistic period of philosophy, during 
which for a hundred years materialism stepped into the 
background, until it was again brought to light by its 
most talented and renowned exponent, Epicurus. Epi- 
curus was born 342 B. C. and reached the high old age 
of 72 years, after having written, as is asserted, not less 
than three hundred works, most of which however are 
lost. The principal source for the study of his doctrine 
is found in the celebrated poem of Lucretius Larus, a 
very well known and highly esteemed Roman author, 
who lived between the years 95 and 52 B. C. His poem 
was entitled : "de rerum natura " ( " on the nature of 
things " ) and is even to day well worthy of being read. 
A short exposition of the doctrines contained therein 
may be found in the fifth of my lectures on Darwin. I 
must here confine myself to the statement that Epicurus 
and his follower Lucretius exerted a very significant in- 
tellectual influence upon the Roman world of their times, 
as indeed the Romans had adopted in all only two philo- 
sophical systems from the Greeks, namely the Stoic 
and the Epicurean system. Epicurean philosophy reach- 
ed its climax during the glorious reign of Caesar Augus- 
tus, when it numbered many of the most prominent 
thinkers among its adherents. 

Epicurus is also the author of that truly philosophical 
saying: "Death does not concern us. For where we 
are, death is not; and where death is, there we are 
not". Epicurus brings the history of ancient mate- 
rialism to a close, which now for fifteen centuries 
or more passes almost entirely into oblivion through 
the overwhelming and unexampled influence of Chris- 
tianity. Only timidly and under-deceptive disguises ma- 
terialism dared, after the expiration of this time, to show 



10 ENGLISH AND FRENCH MATERIALISTS. 

itself again in a few philosophial thinkers of the 
middle ages, such as Petrus Pomponatius, Giordano 
Bruno, Gassendi and others, some of whom had to 
atone for their doctrines on the funeral pyre. The 
English materialist, Hobbes, born in 1588, fared bet- 
ter, succeeding in escaping by flight from English 
Puritanism. He very strikingly compares religion 
with pills, which must be swallowed whole, without 
chewing. With a similar import, only more wittily, 
our German philosopher Schopenhauer says: " Relig- 
ions are like fireflies; they require darkness in order 
to shine". 

The great philosopher, John Locke, born in 1652, 
in England, who so efficiently prepared the way for 
materialism and sensualism, was likewise compelled 
for many years to live in exile. He is the originator, or 
at least the chief representative, of that celebrated axiom: 
"nihil est in intellectu, quod non antefuerit in sensu " 
(there is nothing in our intellect that lias not previously 
been in our senses). The same fate was shared by the 
English materialist Poland, who in his celebrated letters 
to the philosophical queen, Charlotte of Prussia, (1708) 
on the essence of the soul, had advanced entirely material- 
istic views, supported by the relation between force and 
matter. 

But modern materialism found its most decided ex- 
pression in France about the middle and during the 
second half of the last century through the celebrated 
Encyclopedists and Baron D. HolbacKs well known 
" Systeme de la nature" Here too I have to refer con- 
cerning further details to my fore-mentioned book (lec- 
tures on Darwin) and can here only state, that this mate- 
rialism of the 18th century found its outward expression 



REVIVAL OF MATERIALISM. 11 

or its embodiment, so to say, in the great French Revo- 
lution which is known to have so greatly contributed 
towards the deliverance of the mind from the thraldom 
of ancient superstition. But the suppression of the rev- 
olution coincided with the disappearance of materialistic 
philosophy, which then for another half century yielded 
to idealistic, self-sufficient, philosophical speculation. 
This speculation, as is well known, celebrated its greatest 
triumphs in the old home of philosophy, in Germany, 
and attained to so powerful an influence as to control for 
a long time not only science, but practical life, by usurp- 
ing for itself a claim to the faculty of fathoming in a 
merely speculative way not only all secrets of nature, 
but of history, politics and so forth. But this presump- 
tuous venture met with a striking defeat; and from the 
ruins of this speculative philosophy again arose mate- 
rialism, so much cried down and yet always reawak- 
ening to more vigorous and beautiful life, like a phoenix 
rising from its ashes, though this time in a form very 
different from that it had previously borne, and equip- 
ped with other and better weapons than ever before. For 
while the materialism of former years and centuries had 
in the main been nothing more than the result of specu- 
lative thought, though founded, as much as possible, upon 
objective reality: the materialism of our day rests upon 
an entirely different and far more solid basis, aided as 
it is by the results of natural science, coming to its 
assistance from all directions, and in a manner, which 
even twenty or twenty-five years ago the boldest imagi- 
nation could not have dared to dream of. As we all 
know, the natural sciences have just during the present 
century taken vast and unexampled strides in advance, 
and within a period of about three or four decades a se- 



12 INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF MATTER. 

ries of the grandest discoveries have been brought to 
light, any one of which would have been sufficient in 
former times to shed an inextinguishable lustre of glory 
and renown upon a whole century, while most of these 
recent discoveries and even the most important ones are 
crowded within the narrow space of the last two decades. 

When about eighteen years ago I wrote my book 
"Force and Matter," which afterwards enjoyed so great 
popularity, and in which I attempted to transform our 
own philosophico-theological system of cosmology upon 
the ground ot modern natural science, C bail, to be sure, 
quite a series of scientific facts at my service for the sup- 
port of my theory, of which T endeavored to make the 
best possible use. But these facts were for the most part 
very imperfectly arranged, and exhibited on the other 
hand very many gaps which I had to iill as well as pos- 
sible by speculation and hypothesis, relying on the sub- 
sequent confirmation of these hypotheses by the results of 
scientific investigation, and encouraged by the poet's well 
known saying: 

"Great destinies are always preceded by their spirits!" 

And this expectation has indeed within the shortest 
time been realized in a manner which I should never 
have dared to anticipate, and which I vviii try to illustrate 
in detail, though necessarily as briefly as possible. 

In my philosophy I laid the principal stress upon the 
so-called constancy or immortality of matter, which has, 
ever since the beginning of this century, been one of the 
most firmly established facts of natural science, especially 
of chemistry. This constancy or indestructibility of 
matter was, as above stated, long ago known in a 
philosophical sense, and served to all materialists so- 
called as a basis for their speculations, since they could 



CORRELATION AND CONSERVATION OF FORCES. 13 

not fail to acknowledge matter as the only thing of 
constant duration in the continuous flight of phenomena. 
But it was only a general, indefinite philosophical 
abstraction, which met with decided opposition on the 
part of their philosophical antagonists. Such opposition 
is in our days absolutely impossible, since the indestruc- 
tibility and unity of matter is no longer a mere philosoph- 
ical hypothesis, but a fact established beyond any possi- 
bility of denial or doubt, by the most accurate chemical 
investigation. From every combination, however hetero- 
geneous, we see those smallest particles or atoms, so- 
called, of which we now-adays conceive all matter to be com- 
posed in endless and innumerable relations, at its disin- 
tegration appear in the same quantities and endowed 
with the same qualities or forces. In other words: these 
atoms are absolutely indestructible entities and entirely 
unchangeable in themselves. Only the differences in 
their mutual combinations produce the difference of 
phenomena. " An atom of iron," says Dubois Raymond, 
"remains at all events the same thing, no matter whether 
it thunders along the railroad track in the w 7 heel of the 
locomotive, or whether it flies through the air in a meteor, 
or whether it courses in a blood-cell through the temporal 
vein of a poet." 

With this positive proof of the indestructibility of 
atoms or the immortality of matter the work however 
was only half accomplished. A few years after the pub- 
lication of my book this indestructibility found its neces- 
sary complement by the establishment of the same prin- 
ciple with regard to force, by which it was proved 
beyond doubt that as little as an atom of matter can 
anew come into, or disappear from existence, so little can 
even the least amount of force pass out of or come into 



14 RESULTS OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 

existence, but that all forces in heaven and on earth have 
their source in a vast supply of force never changing as 
to its aggregate amount. 

In the same manner science furnished the proof that 
all the forces known to us can be changed or converted 
into each other without the loss of the least effect. Not 
less plainly has it been proven that forces are and cannot 
be anything but properties or motions of matter, and 
that any force without matter is as impossible or incon- 
ceivable, as matter without force or properties. I had 
then further, in accordance with the materialistic theory, 
laid down the assertion, that all matter and force in the 
whole universe, as far as it is visible or accessible to our 
investigations, is absolutely identical. I supported at 
that time these bold assertions not only by theoretical 
reasons, but by the results of the chemical and crystalline 
analysis of meteors, as well as by the phenomona of 
light, heat and gravitation. But since that time my 
assertions have received a striking and most direct con- 
firmation by the recent discovery of Spectrum Analysis, 
made only a few years ago, which latest method of in- 
vestigation enables us to prove with incontrovertible 
certainty the existence in the sun and all the other 
heavenly bodies accessible to our observation, even the 
most remote, of the very same matter and consequently 
the very same forces which are found upon our earth. 
And although perhaps certain kinds or groups of matter 
are peculiar to some heavenly bodies, yet it is now at 
any rate positively proved, that, (to use the words of 
Prof. Kirchhoff, the famous discoverer of Spectrum Anal- 
ysis) "matters and forces in the whole universe are 
essentially identical." 

The same method of Spectrum Analysis has likewise 



I 



THEORY OF EVOLUTION. 15 

led to the discovery that the nebulce so-called, which were 
formerly believed to consist of clusters or groups of 
stars, but which on account of their great distance 
could not be resolved by the telescope into single stars, 
are in part actual nebulae, that is, solar and planetary 
systems in the course of formation, which offer to us a 
distinct and unmistakable illustration of the former de- 
velopement of our own planetary system. This also 
confirms the hypothesis I advanced in my book in the 
chapter, " the heaven," regarding the origin and gradual 
developement of our solar system from natural causes. 
But far more important than all this are the confirma- 
tions given to the materialistic theory since its reawak- 
ening by the investigations regarding the origin of the 
organic world. AYhen in 1855 I wrote my two chapters 
on " periods of creation " and " generatio equivoca" I 
was still opposed by almost the whole scientific world 
and had to rely not so much upon real facts, as upon the 
argument drawn from the impossibility of any other 
process, and upon the general threefold parallelism of 
palaeontology, comparative anatomy and the history of 
evolution. I always had before my mind's eye the so- 
called unity of nature and the logical necessity of a 
natural process. But what I then wrote more un- 
der the impulse of presentiment and groping, as it were, 
for the truth, has since received the most complete 
confirmation in every direction by the almost universal 
readaptation of the theory of evolution, so-called, within 
the organic natural sciences. This theory which explains 
the gradual origin of the organic species of plants and 
animals from the simplest beginnings through vast periods 
and innumerable generations in a natural manner and 
without the aid of any extramundane creative agency, 



16 CHARLES DARWIN^ THEORY. 

has now become an almost universally admitted tenet 
of scientists, supported as it is by innumerable well 
established facts. At the same time the cellular theory, 
which proves the entire organic world to be developed 
from, and to consist of a single primitive element, the 
cell, was developed by Yirchow and others in such a 
manner as to remove forever any opposition to the uni- 
versal recognition of the unity of organic nature, by 
proving its validity for the animal world not less than 
for the vegetable world, to which it had hitherto been 
limited. Finally the difficult problem of " generatio 
equivoca " or the origin of the first organic element 
which had caused so much trouble to scholars, and 
which for a long time seemed to mock every attempt at 
solution, was successfully solved by the discovery of 
those simplest primitive forms, designated by Professor 
Haeckel with the name of "moneren" and which cov- 
ered the bottom of the primitive seas in the same manner 
as they even to-day cover the lowest depths of the 
ocean. 

As is well known, the theory of evolution has been 
again restored and brought to honor by the distinguished 
English scholar Charles Darvjin, to whom material- 
istic philosophy owes a great debt of gratitude — a grati- 
tude which appears so much the more deserved, if we 
consider what Darwin has done by his investigations for 
the refutation of Teleology and its perilous influence, 
which, as may be easily inferred, stood in an irreconcila- 
ble antagonism to Materialism. When I first wrote my 
chapter on Teleology, I could likewise appeal only to gen- 
eral reasons and oppose to the many marks of design in 
nature, claimed by Teleologists as a proof of an intelli- 
gent creator, as many examples of the want of design. 



PROOFS FOR THE NATURAL ORIGIN OF MAN. 17 

But as regards the manner in which those marks of de- 
sign had originated, I could venture only general and in- 
definite suppositions and represent them as the general 
result of innumerable processes of evolution. But I was 
unable to trace their connection in detail, since those pro- 
cesses of evolution themselves were not known in detail. 
Darwin, however, has changed this in favor of the mate- 
rialistic theory by furnishing so convincing proofs for the 
natural or accidental causes of these marks of design in 
nature, that now-a-days no well-educated person can speak 
any longer of design in nature as the consequence of in- 
tentional or preconceived calculations. 

In necessary connection with the theory of evolution 
also the natural or animal origin of our own race, or of 
man upon earth, has been discovered and proved as far 
as it is possible with the resources now within the reach 
of science. As is self-evident, the natural origin of man 
is an indispensable requisite for materialistic philosophy. 
But this important problem was before Darwin's time 
wrapt in such impenetrable darkness, that at the time 
when I wrote my book, it required a great deal of cour- 
age to frankly and openly declare it, and I was prepared 
for every kind of scorn and opposition. Both have in- 
deed been my lot ; but this has changed, for within a 
comparatively short time the animal origin of man has 
become an almost universally admitted fact of science. 
Such an origin is of course possible or conceivable only, 
if man's actual existence upon earth dates so far back as 
to exclude it from any comparison with historical tradi- 
tions. But of so long an existence of the human race 
upon earth, science, at that time, neither knew nor anti- 
cipated anything, and it was considered an established 
fact, that there were no fossil or petrified remains of man, 



18 RELATION BETWEEN BRAIN AND MIND. 

and that our race could not have made its appearance 
on earth before the time of the Alluvium. But a few 
years were sufficient to overthrow this prejudice and to 
furnish numerous positive proofs to the contrary. It is 
now considered beyond any doubt, that man existed not 
only at the time of the Deluvixim, but even during the 
latter part of the great tertiary epoch, nay, perhaps even 
at an earlier period, and that his existence extended 
through extraordinarily long periods not at all to be com- 
pared with historical traditions. At the same time re- 
mains of human skulls have been found from most ancient 
times, which give incontrovertible evidence of a very low 
physical and intellectual development of primitive man, 
while, on the other hand, species of monkeys resembling 
man have been discovered and examined, that were en- 
tirely unknown to former times, as for instance the Go- 
rilla. All this raises the fact almost beyond doubt, that 
man was not, in accordance with biblical tradition, the 
product of a divine act of creation, but, like all other or- 
ganic beings, a child of nature, and the result of gradual 
development. I must not neglect to mention, that with 
regard to this matter also, the remarkable disclosures of 
the history of generation and development, likewise 
rather a recent branch of organic natural science, have 
during the short time of its existence, furnished most es- 
sential aid to materialistic philosophy. 

Better than with regard to the problems mentioned 
thus far, I was supported by a series of facts concerning 
the question of man's intellectual being or soul, which 
up to the reawakening of the materialistic doctrine was 
generally considered as having a separate existence of 
its own, more or less independent of nature. But even 
these facts lacked at that time all inner, logical connect 



MENTAL FACULTIES OF ANIMALS. 19 

tion, and the most prominent physiologists were wont 
to express it as their opinion, that from a physiological 
point of view nothing definite conld be established regard- 
ing the essence of the human soul, and that the connec- 
tion between body and soul, or between brain and mind 
seemed to be more accidental than essential and neces- 
sary. Only the celebrated naturalist, Karl Vogt, had 
already then, in his physiological letters, expressed, in a 
rather strong maimer, to be sure, materialistic views 
regarding the relation of brain and soul, but not without 
calling forth from all sides the most violent attacks upon 
himself. 

Since that time, however, the physiology of the brain 
has made such rapid strides in advance, that here too 
the materialistic standpoint appears as the only tenable 
one in a scientific sense. What is called man's soul or 
mind, is now almost universally considered as equivalent 
to a function of the substance of the brain, and although 
the real insight into the physical nature of mental pro- 
cesses is still wanting, yet materialism has also in this 
direction won a more decided victory than can be imag- 
ined. For just the properties of the human mind and 
the impossibility of explaining them, were from the most 
ancient times one of the main supports of spiritualism 
and theological systems. True, their explanation is still 
wanting; but the fact that brain and mental activity 
are as inseparably united as force and matter, does not 
on that account become any the less certain; and even 
that inexplicability will gradually yield, in proportion as 
the physiology of brain and nervous system will be better 
understood. In all probability the nature of our mental 
mechanism will finally be found to be far more simple 



20 THEORY OF HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 

and easier to be understood than is at present thought 
or anticipated. 

Matter however does not possess only mechanical, 
chemical, electric and other forces, but also mental for- 
ces which are manifested under similar conditions as 
those found in the brain of man and animals. At the 
same time a deeper insight into the nature of animals, 
attained by more accurate observations, has enabled us 
to cast glances into the depths of the animal soul, which 
formerly were considered impossible, and which give 
another proof in this direction of the connection which 
materialistic philosophy postulates between man and 
the rest of the organic world. In consequence of this 
circumstance we shall most probably before long see the 
discipline of comparative physiology added to that of com- 
parative anatomy, which we already possess. It will be 
much easier for such an animal physiology, as well as 
for physiology in general, than it w^as in 1855, to eman- 
cipate itself entirely and forever from those innate ideas 
and instincts which played so prominent a part in for- 
mer physiology and philosophy, and which were always 
considered an incontrovertible evidence of man's depen- 
dence upon a higher power or intelligence, by whom 
those ideas and instincts were assumed to have been de- 
signedly implanted into human and animal souls for our 
and their benefit. It was extremely difficult to invali- 
date this assumption, as long as the element of heredi- 
tary transmission , which was almost entirely unknown 
before Darwin, could not be applied in explanation. 
But now the case stands very differently, and if we dis- 
cover any thing in the mental life of man or animal, 
which cannot be explained by education, experience, 



VITAL FORCE REFUTED BY MATERIALISM. 2i 

instruction, example etc., we may be sure that it is trace- 
able to hereditary transmission. For such hereditary 
transmission is known not to be confined to physical 
properties, but to include mental properties as well, and 
it seems even to a greater extent. Especially the ideas 
of time, space and causality, which even at present are 
considered by many philosophers as normal forms of 
thought innate in our mind, and whose existence is ex- 
plained " a priori," that is, as preceding all experience 
and independent from it, are not originally implanted 
into our mind, but are the result of a gradually inherited 
disposition or habit of our mind to manifest its activity 
in accordance with those ideas that had their first origin 
in experience. Thus the materialistic doctrine has also 
in this direction received the fullest confirmation by the 
progress of science. 

In conclusion we have still to speak of that renowned 
or rather ill-reputed vital force, without which it was 
formerly thought the phenomena of life could in no way 
be explained, and the existence of which I most emphat- 
ically opposed in the first edition of my book, since I 
considered it impossible from the modern or materialistic 
standpoint, that those minutest particles of matter or 
atoms could ever assume any other properties or forces 
than those which are originally inherent in them, no 
matter into what conditions or relations they may be 
brought. I had at that time to contend against so cele- 
brated a man as Justus von Liebig, and to endure his 
calling me an amateur, promenading along the borders/ 
of natural science, while in our days chemistry in unison \ 
with physiology has taken such progressive strides as to 
entirely obliterate that artificial discrimination which in 
former times had prevailed between organic and in. 



22 SUCCESSFUL PROGRESS OF MATERIALISM. 

organic chemistry, and to cause it to be considered only 
as a conventional or external one. 

This synopsis completes the outline of the confirma- 
tions which the doctrine of Materialism lias received 
through the progress of the positive sciences. Everyone 
admits, that, considering the short time of eighteen years 
during which they have come to light, these confirma- 
tions were more numerous and of greater importance 
than would have been expected even by the boldest 
imagination, and that no other philosophical doctrine 
known thus far has ever enjoyed similar success. To 
this must be added that even the derogatory criticism 
which I pronounced in the sense of materialistic philoso- 
phy regarding the speculative philosophy of the past, 
has found its full confirmation in the course of time. 
This is so much the more remarkable as at that time the 
speculative systems and the speculative methods were 
still enjoying in Germany, the real home of philosophy, 
a very high reputation, so that no intellectual life was 
thought possible without them. But nevertheless specula- 
tive philosophy has even within this short time lost nearly 
all of its credit — so overwhelmingly strong is the weight 
andpressureof facts if they are once recognized as such and 
brought into correct philosophical connection with one 
another. If, as Gruppe says with so striking correctness, 
the history of philosophy was hitherto nothing but the 
history of error lighted up by some isolated flashes of 
truth, then we may hope that the philosophy of Mater- 
ialism in its future developement will put an end to this 
deplorable condition, by settling the everlasting discus- 
sions of philosophical schools and systems, and by raising 
for the first time in man's history Philosophy to the rank 
of a real science. All previous philosophical systems, 



DUALISM OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY. 23 

with the exception of Materialism, have thus far been 
more or less idealistic and dualistic, that is to say they 
have established a definite distinction or separation 
between matter and force, matter and form, nature and 
mind, world and God, body and soul, earth and heaven, 
death and life, time and eternity. Nay, they have, as a 
rule, treated all these ideas as really antagonistic. Ma- 
terialistic philosophy, on the contrary, supported by facts, 
has for the first time proved, that such antagonism indeed 
does not exist, and that we are able only in our thoughts 
to maintain a separation of those ideas. But in consc 
quence of such separation they immediately become 
empty abstractions, while life and existence are possible 
and conceivable only under the presupposition of their 
fullest unity or identity. There is no matter without 
force, as little as there is any force without matter ; there 
is no form, no life, no motion without material existence, 
nor is there any material existence without those proper- 
ties. There is no nature without order, but just as 
little is there order without nature. There is no body 
without soul any more than there is any soul without 
body. There is no earth without heaven, nor heaven 
without earth. There is no time without eternity, nor is 
there any eternity without time. There is nothing finite 
without anything infinite, but as little is there anything 
infinite without anything finite. Or as out^ great poet 
Goethe says, "Nature is neither kernel nor shell; she is 
everything at once." 

That dualism which hitherto has characterized all 
philosophy has now yielded to unity, and he who knows 
and appreciates the great and unquenchable desire of 
the human mind for unity and a cosmology founded upon 
it, cannot otherwise than hail such a result with greatest 



24: MONISTIC CHARACTER OF MATERIALISM. 

joy. All those tormenting and agonizing doubts and 
uncertainties with which the dualistic cosmology of the 
past terrified Man's mind, are at once removed by it, and 
if mankind hitherto has been hovering, so to say, between 
heaven and earth, God and the world, without being able 
to attain any inner or outward rest, this relation is now 
completely changed. To any one who does not stub- 
bornly and obstinately cling to old prejudices, this *new 
cosmology which has superseded the dualism of former 
systems of philosophy and thought, must appear as clear, 
simple, free of dualism, easily intelligible and perfectly 
satisfactory. On account of this very antagonism to the 
dualistic character of the speculative philosophy of the 
past I should like best to designate the philosophy of 
Materialism as monistic philosophy or philosophy of 
unity, and the cosmology founded upon it as monism, in 
accordance with the suggestion of Prof. Haeckel. But 
I have retained the names of Materialism and mate- 
rialistic philosophy, in order not to be misunderstood, 
hoping that by and by the better appreciation of this 
philosophy will make it possible to replace those names 
by more appropriate ones. The name Materialism is 
very apt to call forth wrong conceptions, as it suggests 
only the idea of matter in the sense in which it has 
prevailed for so long a time, namely as something dead, 
inert, gloomy, immovable, opposed and even hostile to 
mind. But in reality matter, as conceived in -the light of 
modern Materialism, exhibits just the opposite character- 
istics. Especially since the indestructibility of matter, 
as previously described, has found its necessary comple- 
ment in the indestructibility of force, and since the 
separation of force and matter has been recognized as a 
mere abstraction and existing only in our thoughts : it i s 



REALISM OF MATERIALISM. 25 

really impossible to speak any longer of Materialism as 
a system which derives everything from matter only. 
Otherwise we might just as well speak of Dynamism, 
that is of a system that derives everything from force 
(dynamis.) But in reality both are identical and insep- 
arable, and therefore a philosophy built upon those ideas 
cannot be better designated than as monistic or aphilos- 
qpky of unity. Sometimes I have also called my philos- 
ophy a realistic one, in order to intimate, that contrary 
to the speculative systems of the past it seeks its support 
in the facts of reality. But it will be understood that 
this refers more to the method or manner of reasoning 
than to the system itself. Moreover, I should not even 
like to call our monistic philosophy a system, since this 
word always suggests the idea of something finished, 
concluded, permanently established, while the realistic 
philosophy can and must change constantly in accord- 
ance with the changing progress of science and the better 
insight into facts. For that same reason I should raise 
my voice of warning against any attempt to have this 
new philosophy made a new idol to take the place of the 
old one it has superseded, for it would then run the 
danger of being overthrown in its turn by a younger one 
that might succeed it. Only the monistic principle, or 
the principle of unity, ought to be firmly adhered to — all 
the rest ought for the present to be only provisionally 
accepted as truth, and to be held as such only as long as 
progressing science does not teach anything different 
and better. 

In conclusion I should like to protest against the usual 
misconception which is wont to consider Materialism 
and Idealism as antagonistic in principle and opposed to 
each other. Most persons think that the adoption of 



26 



MATERIALISM NOT ANTAGONISTIC TO IDEALISM. 



Materialism involves the disappearance of all high and 
noble aspirations from the world, the abolition of art and 
poetry and the degeneration of man to a low standard of 
sensualism. But this opinion is so thoroughly erroneous, 
that according to my conception the very contrary is 
true, and that, as far as the sensualistic tendency of Ma- 
terialism is concerned, it is founded upon the confounding 
of Scientific Materialism with the Materialism of life. 
The former is* so little antagonistic to Idealism^ that it 
rather furnishes the true basis for it. The sole difference 
between this only true Idealism and that of the past is 
this, that the latter aimed at unattainable ends, while 
Idealism in the sense of my philosophy aspires after attain- 
able ends and brings the whole power of idealistic aspira- 
tion to bear upon actual life. For it is self-evident that the 
more we abandon all those ideals which lie outside of us 
and our natural existence ( such as the hope for individ- 
ual life after death, or the existence of a supreme being 
who directs our destinies by his providence, &c. ) the 
more our whole attention is directed to the heaven in 
our own heart. We shall then no longer sacrifice our 
earthly enjoyment and happiness to transcendental hopes, 
and shall endeavor to find upon this earth the heaven 
that we have lost by giving up our old faith. We shall 
therefore appreciate this actual life more highly than 
hitherto, and shall endeavor to make it already upon 
the earth as ideal, that is, as beautiful and perfect as 
possible. Art and poetry will not suffer from such a 
change, but on the contrary thrive so much the more 
vigorously, though not in the form of the Romanticism or 
nebulous Sentimentalism of the past, but as the expres- 
sion of sentiments and ideas grown up from actual life 
itself. The greatest of all poets who has ever lived and 



INFLUENCE OF MATERIALISM UPON SOCIETY. 27 

whose masterpieces are immortal, because he stood upon 
this ground of truth and reality, Shakespeare, was al- 
ready a Materialist in his innermost convictions, and 
with his prophetic eye pursued the eternal wanderings 
of matter as the last and primitive cause of everything 
that exists, through the same pathways, upon which 
modern science has traced it with mathematical certainty, 
when he says : ( Hamlet, v. 1.) 

" Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay, 
Wight stop a hole to keep the wind away ; 
that the earth that kept the world in awe, 
Should patch a wall to expel the winter's flaw ! " 

What now concerns in conclusion the influence of 
materialism upon society, will easily be established from 
what has been said before. This influence can be onlv 
a beneficent one ; for in the first place it must give to 
every individual a previously unknown peace and cheer- 
fulness of mind by delivering him from those agonizing 
doubts and fears to which the systems of the past sub- 
jected him ; while in the second place it directs the 
attention of every individual and consequently of society 
to what is real %xi& practical, or in a word, to life itself, 
and compels him to seek the ideals which formerly 
appeared to his vision only in the distance, in his imme- 
diate proximity. But while doing this, he is manifestly 
obliged to regulate his own life, as well as the life of his 
race, as beautifully, agreeably and carefully as possible. 

From this general point of view, I think, we must 
appreciate the influence of materialism upon the society 
of the future. But this view, in order to become fruitful, 
must of course be applied in detail to every single prob- 
lem that may arise in society, and it must be shown, how 
the demands raised from all sides for a reform of society 
are to be complied with from the standpoint of mate- 



28 CONCLUSION. 

rialistic philosophy. I have undertaken this no doubt 
very difficult task of carrying out such a criticism in 
detail and of giving account of the result of my efforts 
in the third part of my recent book on "Man and his 
position in nature" to which I therefore direct the 
attention of those who have derived from the perusal 
of the preceeding pages, sufficient interest for these de- 
tails, since I must forbear from entering into them here. 
A careful perusal of this book will, I trust, convince the 
reader that all the demands of materialistic philosophy 
with regard to life and the regulation of society in 
the future can be condensed into the few words with 
which I conclude that exposition, and with which I 
conclude this essay: 

" Liberty, education, and prosperity for all." 



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Chapter I.— The Male Organs of Generation. 

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